Collaborated research/writing done by Audrey, Ava, and Brooke.

In the late 19th century in New York, with Chinese immigrants facing discrimination and violence from the American government (ex: The Chinese Exclusion Act) and white Americans, volunteer benevolent associations began to pop up, with the initial goal of creating social/economic programs to benefit immigrants within their communities. However, as time went on, these associations became involved in illegal activities for financial gain, and soon, the associations began to fight with each other over their claims to territory and business (the so-called ‘tong (chamber) wars’). During the Great Depression, the corruption largely dissipated, as many unemployed Chinese Americans looked to tongs for welfare, and the police had cracked down on gambling and other illegal activities. The associations migrated back to helping community members financially (though still provided protection), and many remain as the Chinatown associations we see today.